| Police officers have often been accused of | | | | relationships based on racialized categorization."). |
| racism, sexism and, even on occasion, fascism | | | | If the police are institutionally racist, what can be |
| but often these accusations are denied or refuted | | | | done to reverse this apparent discriminatory |
| as being either completely unfounded or as being | | | | attitude? Is it endemic within the police culture, or |
| sourced from aggrieved individuals with no, or | | | | do the combined attitudes, perspectives and |
| little, basis in fact. Nevertheless, the accusations | | | | beliefs of individual officers mean that tackling |
| continue. These accusations, largely, come from | | | | racism has to be done on an individual basis and, if |
| ethnic minorities and, in particular, the black and | | | | this is the case, how would such a task be |
| Asian communities. Women tend to be less vocal | | | | undertaken? Where would one begin - at the |
| and even then, by women who are serving police | | | | training centre, through psychological profiling of |
| officers regarding poor promotional prospects; on | | | | potential recruits? One problem which may arise in |
| the whole, most accusations made against the | | | | 'forcing' race relations to be part of police officer |
| police are in relation to race or ethnicity rather | | | | culture is that it could drive the problem |
| than gender. | | | | underground; officers may publicly denounce |
| Are these accusations justified? Do the police | | | | racism whilst forcing those they see as obtaining |
| suffer from institutional racism as reported in the | | | | 'special treatment' or 'positive discrimination' into a |
| Macpherson Inquiry following the tragic death of | | | | corner from which they cannot return. Whilst this |
| Stephen Lawrence in London? Alternatively, is it | | | | may result in a few officers being reprimanded or |
| truly a case that, statistically, men (and it is | | | | even forced to resign if they do not comply, |
| mostly men) who are black are more likely to | | | | many more will be left to fester their dislike in a |
| commit street crime and thus police stop and | | | | more discreet manner. We need to address the |
| search of such minorities are appropriate? Would | | | | problem on a larger scale and tackle the root |
| even this justify the evidence that shows police | | | | causes of racism among society to reach those |
| officers stop and search those who are black, six | | | | who - at the end of the day - grow up believing |
| times more often than those who are white? | | | | that multicultural Britain somehow means that |
| Police officers generally stop individuals they | | | | 'white' people are no longer the 'majority' and that |
| suspect of committing, or being likely to commit, | | | | other ethnic groups are 'taking over'. |
| an offence. They are supposed to be equal in | | | | Police officers are representative of the society in |
| their treatment of those they stop and should not | | | | which they police; they are not likely to be the |
| undertake, even subconsciously, racial profiling in | | | | only organisation which suffers from institutional |
| order to carry out their duties. Of course, police | | | | (or any other) racism. Indeed, Jack Straw |
| officers are human and thus not infallible and so | | | | acknowledged this in his statement to the House |
| bring to their work (as many people do) their own | | | | of Commons relating to the Macpherson Report: |
| prejudices, beliefs, opinions and interpretations of | | | | 'In my view, any long-established, white-dominated |
| society and the problems within it. Whilst in a | | | | organisation is liable to have procedures...and a |
| modern, multicultural and multi ethnic society, such | | | | culture that tend to exclude or to disadvantage |
| prejudices are expected to be minimal, the reality | | | | non-white people...including the Home Office - and |
| is that in some areas of the UK, minorities are | | | | many other institutions'. Society at large |
| viewed as either taking over or being given the | | | | discriminates - in one way or another - against |
| soft treatment because of their race or ethnicity. | | | | groups it feels represent different values, cultures |
| Police prejudices may have been normal in the | | | | and ideals. The problem with such attitudes within |
| past, but certainly one would hope that we have | | | | the police, however, is that as a service, they |
| moved on as a society to accept anyone and | | | | operate with some autonomy and have powers |
| everyone on the basis of their actions, over and | | | | available to them with which, if they so chose, |
| above the colour of their skin or ethnic | | | | could allow for racist (or other bigoted) attitudes |
| background. Again, however, infallibility is a human | | | | to shine through and result in discriminatory |
| trait and we cannot expect that police officers | | | | practices. Such practices may have the affect the |
| are any different. If young black men are | | | | ethnic group to which such people belong to in |
| committing more street robberies than white | | | | terms of their views and feelings towards the |
| men, then undoubtedly they will be targeted as | | | | police officers who police them, but also against |
| potential suspects by the police and subject to | | | | the systems which are there for their protection |
| more rigorous policing such as stop and search. | | | | (i.e. the criminal justice system). Such |
| However, is it police racism, whether overt or | | | | anti-establishment feeling is unlikely to be removed |
| otherwise, which explains the higher (and apparent | | | | by simple denials of racism but institutions which |
| disproportionate) number of black men stopped | | | | have - for them - been disproportionately |
| by the police? Is it reflective of a society that (as | | | | targeting them over and above others purely on |
| some might argue) discriminates against minorities | | | | the basis of skin colour or ethnic background. |
| in all aspects: poor educational facilities and fewer | | | | For example, research undertaken in Norway |
| employment prospects so that criminality | | | | shows how police officers' actions can be |
| becomes more attractive and an easier option for | | | | perceived as racist, whilst at the same time |
| ethnic minorities? Whilst there are some who | | | | allowing for other factors behind their stop and |
| climb the corporate ladder, becoming successful | | | | search procedures. Sollund makes the argument |
| lawyers, even politicians, doctors or other white | | | | (and follows with examples) that although race |
| collar or blue collar workers, far more are | | | | may play a factor, other reasons come into play |
| excluded from certain posts. The Race Relations | | | | when police officers decide to perform stop and |
| Act 1975 was supposed to remove discrimination | | | | searches. Further, the examples illustrate that |
| from many aspects of society but particularly in | | | | aggression and/or frustration on both sides (i.e. |
| relation to employment. As we have often seen | | | | from the police and the person stopped) can |
| with legislation, however, laws to combat society's | | | | exacerbate an already tense situation so that |
| perception of 'the other' do not necessarily work | | | | what may have been a routine stop '...escalate[s] |
| and, on occasion, may eventually come back and | | | | so dramatically'. Here, the black male driver was in |
| bite those who it seeks to protect. | | | | a BMW vehicle, known by the police to be a |
| Are police officers stopping higher numbers of | | | | target for thieves; the driver was in a hurry to |
| young black men because they are, like society, | | | | get to work and so may have appeared agitated |
| implicitly racist? The Police and Criminal Evidence | | | | (though Sollund points out that he was stopped at |
| Act 1984 (PACE), when it was produced, should | | | | a stop sign and so was not driving at that point). |
| have stopped, or at least reduced, the number of | | | | Of more interest, however, is that mention is |
| people stopped and searched for anything other | | | | made of police checking the licence plate and |
| than 'reasonable suspicion' (s.1). However, | | | | finding that the driver had been stopped before, |
| reasonable suspicion, whilst legislated to be | | | | thus raising the possibility that the police felt |
| objective, rarely is: police officers interpret | | | | justified in performing a further stop. It is |
| 'reasonable suspicion' in many ways and it is easy | | | | therefore a combination of these factors which |
| to find justification where there may be none. | | | | precipitated the stop itself; the driver's irritation |
| Various laws allow police officers to search those | | | | due to a lack of information as to the reasons |
| they suspect of carrying illegal substances as well | | | | behind the stop itself may have exacerbated the |
| as for weapons, etc. Reasonable suspicion of | | | | situation so that the end result was a violent |
| certain individuals may seem obvious and thus | | | | confrontation between the [white] police officers |
| stereotyping of many may seem an obvious | | | | and the [black] driver. Sollund does not take either |
| requirement of police work but not all black men | | | | side at face value, nor are attempts made to |
| are out on the street seeking potential robbery | | | | justify one parties' actions over and above the |
| victims; however, how many white old ladies are | | | | other; what Sollund does do is put forward |
| stopped and searched for drugs or weapons or | | | | arguments which illustrate each actor's |
| items used in burglaries? It is not necessarily being | | | | perspective and thus provide subjective and |
| put forward however that stereotypes should be | | | | objective interpretation for all those involved. |
| ignored altogether by police officers when | | | | Racist commentary was used by one officer, but |
| consideration is given to who should be targeted | | | | whether this was based on personal racism, or |
| in stop and search procedures. | | | | just a tactic to illicit an aggressive response to |
| Obvious reasons for fewer numbers of old ladies | | | | justify the stop itself, is unknown; it would be |
| (whether white or black) being stopped by police | | | | doubtful if this would be a tactic unknown to |
| officers is that they rarely commit crimes, such | | | | police officers all over the world, whatever the |
| as street robbery, burglary or drugs offences. | | | | race or even gender of the suspected person. |
| Therefore, stop and search techniques which | | | | It could be argued that police officers are biased |
| involve some form of stereotyping and/or | | | | towards individuals and groups of individuals no |
| profiling are necessary; if some method of | | | | more or less than any other institution which |
| stereotyping of the population were not | | | | operates control and/or power over others. The |
| undertaken then methods of policing would either | | | | armed forces have also suffered accusations of |
| have stop altogether (to avoid any claims of | | | | racism and sexism for decades; clubs which |
| discrimination) or police numbers would have to | | | | operate 'private members' have often been |
| rise significantly to deal with the higher number of | | | | accused of being sexist for only allowing male |
| stops required to search everyone who 'may' | | | | members and being class-based. The particular |
| carry illegal weapons/substances. Either scenario is | | | | problem for the police, however, is that their very |
| highly impractical. | | | | essence, their very existence requires them to be |
| Problems arise when one group (i.e. ethnic | | | | discriminatory in terms of who they target and |
| minorities) are specifically targeted over any other | | | | when, how, where and why they do so. The |
| without reasonable grounds and such grounds | | | | police force has traditionally - and in many ways |
| must be reasonable using an objective method. | | | | has to remain - responsive to crime (i.e. |
| Objective reasonable grounds should not include | | | | reactionary, rather than proactively) in order to |
| the ethnic group to which a suspect may belong; | | | | ensure their resources are not so stretched as to |
| this naturally occurs, but of course, whether | | | | avoid collapse. Legislation to which they operate |
| consciously or not, officers utilise their experience | | | | requires them to use discretion and a method of |
| and knowledge of offending patterns. For those | | | | profiling (whether on the grounds of race, gender, |
| police officers, such knowledge or experience can | | | | class, etc.) to ensure that those who are likely to |
| be objective reasoning and thus their stop and | | | | have offended, or who may offend, are targeted. |
| search practices continue to follow the pattern | | | | Some research into the reasons why police |
| that young black men are stopped more | | | | officers undertake stops and precisely who they |
| frequently. If they believe that, statistically, men | | | | target raises interesting notions of both police bias |
| of certain ethnic groups are more likely to commit | | | | towards ethnic groups, but equally towards |
| offences such as street robbery, then naturally | | | | particular age groups. Officers' reasons for stops |
| they will target such groups. If an offender is | | | | were related to the appearance, including age, |
| intending to steal from a house (burglary), then he | | | | dress, vehicle and ethnicity (though only in some |
| or she may 'go equipped' and thus any stop and | | | | cases was ethnicity given); location and time of |
| search would identify this person as such; it may | | | | the person(s), behaviour of the person(s) and any |
| be of note that seven percent of those who are | | | | information the officers had available as to local |
| stopped are actually arrested. | | | | problems/criminals. Further, the research |
| Research has shown that whilst police officers are | | | | summarises that although in some cases, young |
| in fact bias to some extent, the underlying reason | | | | black men may be disproportionately stopped by |
| for their bias is the evidence stated above - that | | | | police officers, they could, in some areas and at |
| certain groups from ethnic minorities commit | | | | certain times, be under-represented in stops by |
| higher rates of offences. This research also | | | | officers. The same research claims that white |
| shows that, despite the fact that there is | | | | people are in fact over-represented in stops by |
| disproportionately more stop and searches of | | | | police officers. Asian people on the whole were |
| certain ethnic groups, this is not solely attributable | | | | less likely than either black, or white, people to be |
| to police bias but the geographic and | | | | stopped though there were 'some exceptions'. |
| demographics of the area. Nevertheless, in | | | | Thus, depending on research undertaken, and |
| analysing the Islington Crime Survey, Brian | | | | perhaps the questions posed to both officers and |
| Maclean found some evidence that young black | | | | those subject to stops by them, ethnic minorities |
| men (16-24 years) were stopped by the police | | | | may face no more, or less, bias by police officers |
| more frequently than white or Asians (19.1% as | | | | when it comes to stop and search procedures. |
| against 10.9 for the same group of white men). | | | | There is little doubt that officers' perception, |
| Interestingly, however, the figures for those who | | | | though subjective, relies upon local intelligence; |
| were stopped and searched are relatively similar: | | | | people who are involved in criminal activities need |
| 4.6% for black and 4.0% for white men. The | | | | to be targeted specifically over those who are |
| figure for Asian men who were stopped only was | | | | not involved (or those who are not likely to |
| 8.5% whilst stop and search figures are | | | | become involved) and that automatically |
| significantly lower at 1.4%. All figures relate to | | | | generates a form of profiling. Building profiles of |
| stops or stops and searches whilst suspects were | | | | people inevitably involves their ethnicity, though it |
| on foot. Those in vehicles were lower still though | | | | obviously should not solely be on that basis. If |
| the difference for searches of those in vehicles | | | | reports of robberies come in and officers' radio |
| were more stark than their counterpart figures | | | | calls state that a young black male is the |
| for those stopped on foot (2.6% white, 7.9% | | | | perpetrator, then immediately it is obvious that |
| black and 2.5% Asian). On the basis of these | | | | young white males will not be targeted. Where |
| figures, it does appear that stops and searches of | | | | would or should officers draw the line as to what |
| black men by police tend to outnumber white and | | | | people they ought to stop? If police officers |
| Asian men, but what is not clear is whether this is | | | | began to question everyone with whom they |
| reflective of the demographic area. Many areas in | | | | came into contact with, not only would their |
| Islington do house greater numbers of black | | | | senior ranks decry the waste of limited |
| people than white. Another potential problem with | | | | resources, but the public would respond with |
| interpreting statistical data, is lack of clarity in | | | | apoplexy. Thus, society as a whole requires the |
| terms of when and where such stops took place; | | | | police to discriminate against certain individuals - |
| i.e. were the stops undertaken by police | | | | one only has to look at how the public have |
| immediately following a report of a street | | | | responded to youths who 'hang around the |
| robbery, was the time of day suspicious in that - | | | | streets' whereas decades ago, nothing more than |
| at 2am on a Thursday morning, it may be curious | | | | a slight nuisance would have been attached to |
| to say anyone walking around and thus stopping | | | | them, we now target them as being the bane of |
| people is not wholly unusual. Statistical analysis is | | | | decent folks' lives. |
| always difficult particularly if one is seeking to find | | | | Antisocial Behavioural Orders (ASBOs) have been |
| underlying causes as the data is often limited and | | | | issued in many cities and towns across the UK to |
| structured in such a way as to provide basic | | | | target 'antisocial behaviour' which can simply |
| information only. | | | | consist of a group of youths - bored - standing |
| However, to return to the main question - does | | | | around perhaps being a little too exuberant in their |
| racial discrimination or racial attitudes affect police | | | | discussions. Indeed, legislation has been introduced |
| stop and search numbers? Is the disproportionate | | | | to ensure that, where a group of two or more |
| number of black men who experience stop and | | | | youths are congregating, they can be dispersed |
| search by the police reflective of a wider society | | | | by the police. Though it is not related to race, but |
| which discriminates against them (in that crime is | | | | age, this is only one example of discriminatory |
| the only option due to fewer employment | | | | methods used against a particular group; there |
| opportunities) or is it geographic in that areas of | | | | are other groups of people who tend to have a |
| higher rates of stop and search of young black | | | | particular ethnic origin - gypsies or travellers (i.e. |
| men are as result of a greater number of black | | | | who generally are Irish or of Irish descent) and |
| people residing in the area? | | | | who are targeted by police and the authorities as |
| A combination of both factors perhaps may exist, | | | | being unwanted and undesired. For instance, s.61 |
| as well as the fact that younger people generally | | | | and s.62 of Criminal Justice & Public Order |
| hang around with no real purpose and/or direction | | | | Act 1994 allows for police officers to order |
| more frequently than those in their thirties and | | | | people to leave land if reasonable grounds exist |
| forties who may go out to bars, parties, etc. If | | | | for the officer to believe such people (who |
| we look at age alone, figures show that those | | | | generally are travellers) are residing there illegally |
| within the lower age range (16-24) are subjected | | | | and causing damage. Penalties include terms of up |
| to higher rates of stop and stop and searches by | | | | to three months' custody. There is little doubt |
| police officers. Those who are aged 45 or over | | | | that antisocial behaviour legislation may also be |
| are less likely to be stopped by almost one fifth | | | | utilised for this group of people. |
| (5.4%) of the same group who are 16-24 years | | | | Over and above these groups, further legislation |
| of age (24.2%), whilst only half the number are | | | | has been brought in that implicitly enables the |
| likely to be stopped if they are in middle group | | | | police and security services to utilise racial profiling, |
| (aged 25-44 : 13.1%). It is worrying however that | | | | and thus racial discrimination, of Muslims/Islamists |
| it is a general assumption that police officers are | | | | to enable the greater public protection against |
| racist or that racism is endemic within the police. | | | | terrorism in the wake of September 11th events |
| This is despite the assertion by Lord Macpherson | | | | in the USA and the July 7th and 21st attacks in |
| that the Metropolitan Police was 'institutionally | | | | London as it is highly likely that only 'Muslims' will |
| racist' (1999). | | | | be targeted as the only group likely to target the |
| Such an assumption, backed up by Macpherson, is | | | | UK on behalf of, or because of affiliation to, |
| highly damaging to police officers all over the | | | | Al-Qaeda (such as the Terrorism Act 2000 and |
| country, but particularly acute in cities with high | | | | the Terrorism Act 2006). Legislation used against |
| numbers of ethnic minority groups (e.g. London, | | | | suspected terrorists has been subject to |
| Birmingham, Manchester, etc.). Whilst Lord | | | | controversy and cited as being in contravention of |
| Scarman had avoided such a label in the Brixton | | | | the European Convention on Human Rights Thus it |
| Riots Inquiry in the 1980s, Macpherson felt that | | | | is difficult to see how some form of discrimination |
| Scarman's definition of overt racism was not | | | | is not utilised by police officers - on behalf of the |
| necessarily the one which could and should be | | | | State - whether due to their colour (i.e. Black |
| followed. Therefore, when police officers stop (or | | | | people), their perceived religion (Middle-Eastern or |
| stop and search) young black men - or other | | | | African/Asian people), or their lifestyle/culture |
| young ethnic minority men - then accusations of | | | | (such as Irish travellers/gypsies). |
| racism are undoubtedly likely to arise. This is not | | | | Society, therefore, as a whole plays a part in |
| to say that problems such as institutional racism, | | | | allowing racism to become and remain endemic |
| if it exists, should be avoided or ignored; to do so | | | | within itself. Government legitimatises repression in |
| would only exacerbate the problem and cause | | | | one form or another by introducing laws which, |
| further conflict among others. | | | | even though not specifically stated, target people |
| However, to solely or largely attribute such stop | | | | from particular ethnic origins, age, culture or social |
| and search numbers as disproportionate down to | | | | class. When stated over and over, such |
| racist attitudes by police officers and their | | | | discrimination allows the general population to feel |
| institution, can cause resentment by police | | | | that their concerns over 'others' because the |
| officers themselves. Following Macpherson's | | | | Government has allowed such discrimination to |
| report, police integrity was obviously called into | | | | fester in its attempts to eradicate criminality in |
| question and this can cause serious problems with | | | | whichever form it feels needs priority at any |
| morale among officers. Such low morale can | | | | particular time. If and when, therefore, young |
| result in fewer stop and search procedures being | | | | black men (or institutions representing such |
| undertaken; statistical comparisons of stop and | | | | minority groups) claim racism, it is seen by many |
| searches between 1997-98 and 1998-1999, again | | | | as an excuse to remove responsibility for criminal |
| in 1999-2000 and 2002-2003 illustrate a drop in | | | | actions which, if they were white, would not be |
| such procedures between 1998 and 2000 and | | | | dismissed quite so readily. |
| only a slight increase in 2001. If police officers' | | | | Thus, political parties such as the National Front or |
| assert that their actions are justified but are not | | | | the British National Party claim that to end such |
| supported by their bosses and condemned by | | | | problems, curbs should be made on immigration |
| politicians on the one hand, whilst enacting laws | | | | levels. Whilst publicly condemning such |
| which create greater powers for stop and search | | | | organisations as being racist, or fascist, the |
| on the other, then trust by police officers in their | | | | Government may in fact be assisting such a |
| own status may be undermined. Recruitment may | | | | wave of anti-ethnic minority feeling as it tells of |
| drop, early retirement may increase and levels of | | | | tolerance for all generally, but then makes |
| police officers may drop (precisely what the public | | | | legislation targeting specific ethnic groups and |
| do not want to see). | | | | labelling them as 'potential' criminals or terrorists. It |
| This is a particular problem under Labour; the | | | | is not surprising, therefore, that organisations |
| Government wholeheartedly supported | | | | which act on behalf of the Government in terms |
| Macpherson's report and ordered a review of | | | | of law enforcement are accused of racism when |
| policing throughout England and Wales. Just a | | | | they use racial profiling to meet the expectation |
| couple of years later, however, further laws were | | | | that anti-terrorism laws are being utilised and that |
| introduced empowering the police to make | | | | action is being taken to 'reduce crime' perpetrated |
| detentions based on racial profiling (due to the | | | | by specific groups (i.e. youths, street robbers and |
| events of September 11th in New York and | | | | burglary to name but three). It is difficult to fully |
| Washington); thus the Government sanctioned | | | | attribute any over-representation of black and |
| some form of racial discrimination for 'public | | | | other ethnic minority groups in stop (or stop and |
| protection'. Even further, many of these laws | | | | search) policing methods to racism - institutional or |
| (despite opposition from some) allowed for the | | | | otherwise. There are undoubtedly other factors: if |
| detention of people without trial - the | | | | a person is known to be either associated directly, |
| Government was forced to review after the Law | | | | or indirectly, with known criminals; if a person has |
| Lords ruled in favour of detainees who were | | | | a criminal record and/or has been in prison. Such |
| detained (usually in Belmarsh high security prison) | | | | factors will encourage police officers to stop such |
| without trial was incompatible with human rights | | | | people if they see them walking or driving around, |
| legislation. If this does not signify that society is | | | | even if they have legitimate and reasonable rights |
| confused (and those who purport to act on its | | | | to do so. |
| behalf) as to what constitutes racism and what | | | | Targeting people because of prior criminal history |
| does not, what does? If the higher ranks of the | | | | is not unusual and one would suspect that the |
| police act in a particular way, or condone the | | | | public at large would expect officers to do so. |
| seemingly racist attitudes of their officers (by lack | | | | Targeting people due to racial or ethnic |
| of public or private condemnation) then it is not | | | | background is more difficult to justify however; |
| difficult to see how and why the police are | | | | even if that person has a criminal record, any |
| considered racist, particularly by many groups of | | | | stop by the police is likely to result in accusations |
| ethnic minorities. | | | | of racism. Officers who conduct such stops ought |
| For example, in the Macpherson report, it was | | | | to try a little harder to understand the |
| specifically mentioned that the 'professional | | | | background to which racism accusations are |
| incompetence' and 'failure of leadership by senior | | | | based and approach each stop (whether of a |
| officers' was core in the failure of the police in the | | | | white or black person) in a considerate and fair, |
| Lawrence murder inquiry. So what is the | | | | albeit firm, manner. Respect is reciprocal and each |
| institutional racism with which the Metropolitan | | | | actor involved in such scenarios ought to be |
| Police were accused of? How is it defined? | | | | prepared to give and take; slightly lower levels of |
| According to Macpherson, it is: "collective failure of | | | | aggression, a positive but sedate posture and no |
| an organisation to provide an appropriate and | | | | doubt a little less authoritarian attitude may result |
| professional service to people because of their | | | | in a lower levels of aggressive responses from |
| colour, culture or ethnic origin...seen or detected in | | | | those who are stopped. A whole new experience |
| processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount | | | | of mutual understanding and even empathy of |
| to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, | | | | each person's perspective may mean more |
| ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping | | | | positive experiences for young ethnic minority |
| which disadvantages minority ethnic people." | | | | males which in turn would result in a less stressful |
| Justifying actions on the basis that a particular | | | | and less accusatory position of the officers. |
| group are more likely to partake in certain | | | | Thus, in essence, the extent to which police |
| sanctioned conduct is part of the way in which | | | | racism can be attributed to the apparent |
| we allocate resources for law and order. Of | | | | disproportionate overrepresentation of black |
| course, each side of the argument will state | | | | people, particularly young black men, in stop and |
| categorically that their position is the correct one, | | | | search statistics is truly difficult to state. In some |
| or that - if nothing else - the vast majority | | | | cases, and in particular individual instances, there is |
| support their position and that on the whole, it is | | | | undoubtedly an element of racism when officers |
| the best method of policing. Thus, Sir Paul | | | | stop and search certain people, whether overtly |
| Condon, the Metropolitan Police Commissioner | | | | conducted or not. To attribute each stop and |
| himself denied that not only were the Metropolitan | | | | search of a young black male as being racially |
| Police Service not racist, but that the definition of | | | | motivated, however, is not only false and harmful, |
| 'institutional racism' itself was essentially indistinct | | | | but discriminatory in itself. Officers may have |
| and variable, that it was impossible to label any | | | | subtle prejudices which may affect their |
| institution in such a way! Nonetheless, once the | | | | judgement when considering whether or not to |
| Lawrence Inquiry published it's findings, Sir Paul | | | | stop certain people, but they are not always |
| Condon accepted that his institution was racist | | | | related necessarily to ethnic status. It is far more |
| and ACPO accepted the definition - almost | | | | probable that officers stop those people they feel |
| without complaint - along with Jack Straw, then | | | | match descriptions of offenders or suspects and |
| Home Secretary. | | | | those who are of certain ethnic groups may be |
| According to O'Neill and Holdaway, the only | | | | more likely to meet such criteria. Whether this is |
| empirical evidence used to consider the question | | | | determined by society as a whole, by |
| of institutional racism within police forces is the | | | | Governments and/or by police officers |
| statistical data on stop and search but points out | | | | themselves is something far more difficult to |
| the flawed nature of such evidence (i.e. that "they | | | | state but it inevitably is an argument which will |
| are merely indicative of processes and | | | | rarely be out of the limelight. |